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<a href="/aristotle-life-works" hreflang="und">34. Aristotle's Life and Works</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-logic" hreflang="und">35. Aristotle's Logic</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-epistemology" hreflang="und">36. Aristotle's Epistemology</a>
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<a href="/benson-aristotle" hreflang="und">37. Hugh Benson on Aristotle</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-substance" hreflang="und">38. Aristotle on Substance</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-four-causes" hreflang="und">39. Aristotle's Four Causes</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-physics" hreflang="und">40. Aristotle's Physics</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-sorabji" hreflang="und">41. Sorabji on Aristotle</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-soul" hreflang="und">42. Aristotle on Soul</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-biology" hreflang="und">43. Aristotle's Biology</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-ethics" hreflang="und">44. Aristotle's Ethics 1</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-friendship" hreflang="und">45. Aristotle's Ethics 2</a>
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<a href="/scott-aristotle-ethics" hreflang="und">46. Scott on Aristotle</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-mind-god" hreflang="und">47. Aristotle on Mind and God</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-politics" hreflang="und">48. Political Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-rhetoric-poetics" hreflang="und">49. Rhetoric, Poetics</a>
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<a href="/aristotle-plato" hreflang="und">50. Aristotle on Plato</a>
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<a href="/plato-aristotle-successors" hreflang="und">51. Successors</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/later-antiquity/hellenistic-philosophy">Hellenistic</a></h2>
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<a href="/hellenistic-schools" hreflang="und">52. Hellenistic Schools</a>
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<a href="/cynics" hreflang="und">53. The Cynics</a>
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<a href="/cyrenaics" hreflang="und">54. The Cyrenaics</a>
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<a href="/epicurus-principles" hreflang="und">55. Epicurus' Principles</a>
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<a href="/epicurus-ethics" hreflang="und">56. Epicurean Ethics</a>
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<a href="/epicurus-gods-death" hreflang="und">57. Epicurean Therapy</a>
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<a href="/lucretius" hreflang="und">58. Lucretius</a>
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<a href="/warren-epicurus" hreflang="und">59. Warren on Epicurus</a>
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<a href="/stoics-principles" hreflang="und">60. Stoic Logic</a>
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<a href="/stoics-epistemology" hreflang="und">61. Stoic Epistemology</a>
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<a href="/stoics-physics" hreflang="und">62. Stoic Physics</a>
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<a href="/stoics-ethics" hreflang="und">63. Stoic Ethics</a>
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<a href="/stoics-sedley" hreflang="und">64. Sedley on Stoicism</a>
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<a href="/seneca" hreflang="und">65. Seneca</a>
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<a href="/epictetus" hreflang="und">66. Epictetus</a>
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<a href="/marcus-aurelius" hreflang="und">67. Marcus Aurelius</a>
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<a href="/sellars-stoics" hreflang="und">68. Sellars on Roman Stoics</a>
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<a href="/pyrrho" hreflang="und">69. Pyrrho</a>
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<a href="/skeptics-academy" hreflang="und">70. New Academy</a>
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<a href="/cicero" hreflang="und">71. Cicero</a>
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<a href="/cicero-woolf" hreflang="und">72. Woolf on Cicero</a>
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<a href="/sextus" hreflang="und">73. Sextus Empiricius</a>
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<a href="/hellenistic-long" hreflang="und">74. Long on the Self</a>
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<a href="/ancient-medicine" hreflang="und">75. Ancient Medicine</a>
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<a href="/galen-hankinson" hreflang="und">76. Hankinson on Galen</a>
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<a href="/late-antiquity-introduction" hreflang="und">77. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/philo-alexandria" hreflang="und">79. Philo of Alexandria</a>
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<a href="/aristotelianism" hreflang="und">82. Aristotelianism </a>
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<a href="/alexander-aphrodisias" hreflang="und">83. Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>
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<a href="/astronomy-astrology" hreflang="und">85. Astronomy and Astrology</a>
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<a href="/mathematics-cuomo" hreflang="und">86. Cuomo on Mathematics</a>
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<a href="/plotinus-life" hreflang="und">87. Plotinus Life and Works</a>
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<a href="/plotinus-one-intellect" hreflang="und">88. Plotinus on the One</a>
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<a href="/plotinus-soul" hreflang="und">89. Plotinus on the Soul</a>
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<a href="/plotinus-matter-evil" hreflang="und">90. Plotinus on Matter &amp; Evil</a>
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<a href="/plotinus-wilberding" hreflang="und">91. Wilberding on Plotinus</a>
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<a href="/iamblichus" hreflang="und">93. Iamblichus</a>
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<a href="/proclus" hreflang="und">94. Proclus</a>
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<a href="/aesthetics-sheppard" hreflang="und">95. Sheppard on Aesthetics</a>
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<a href="/neoplatonism-omeara" hreflang="und">96. O'Meara on Neoplatonism</a>
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<a href="/last-pagans" hreflang="und">97. The Last Pagans</a>
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<a href="/philoponus" hreflang="und">98. Philoponus</a>
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<a href="/commentators-sorabji" hreflang="und">99. Sorabji - the Commentators</a>
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<a href="/trapp-humfress" hreflang="und">100. Ancient Culture</a>
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<a href="/antique-christianity-introduction" hreflang="und">101. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/greek-fathers" hreflang="und">102. Greek Church Fathers</a>
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<a href="/origen" hreflang="und">103. Origen</a>
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<a href="/cappadocians" hreflang="und">104. Cappadocians</a>
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<a href="/pseudo-dionysius" hreflang="und">105. Pseudo-Dionysius</a>
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<a href="/maximus-confessor" hreflang="und">106. Maximus the Confessor</a>
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<a href="/asceticism" hreflang="und">107. Asceticism</a>
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<a href="/fathers-boys-stones" hreflang="und">108. Boys-Stones - Patristics</a>
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<a href="/latin-fathers" hreflang="und">109. Latin Church Fathers</a>
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<a href="/augustine-confessions" hreflang="und">110. Augustine's Confessions</a>
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<a href="/augustine-language" hreflang="und">111. Augustine on Language</a>
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<a href="/augustine-freedom" hreflang="und">112. Augustine on Freedom</a>
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<a href="/augustine-city-of-god" hreflang="und">113. Augustine City of God</a>
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<a href="/augustine-byers" hreflang="und">114. Byers on Augustine</a>
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<a href="/augustine-mind" hreflang="und">115. Augustine on Mind</a>
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<a href="/augustine-brittain" hreflang="und">116. Brittain on Augustine</a>
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<a href="/latin-platonism" hreflang="und">117. Latin Platonism</a>
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<a href="/boethius" hreflang="und">118. Boethius</a>
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<a href="/119-john-marenbon-boethius" hreflang="und">119. Marenbon on Boethius</a>
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<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/series/islamic-world" title="Islamic World" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/116">Islamic World</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/islamic-world/formative-period">Formative Period</a></h2>
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<a href="/intro-islamic-world" hreflang="und">120. Philosophy and Islam</a>
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<a href="/mutazilites" hreflang="und">121. Mu'tazilites</a>
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<a href="/translation-movement" hreflang="und">122. Translation Movement</a>
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<a href="/al-kindi" hreflang="und">123. Al-Kindī</a>
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<a href="/judaism-philosophy" hreflang="und">124. Judaism and Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/saadia" hreflang="und">125. Saadia Gaon</a>
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<a href="/al-razi" hreflang="und">126. Al-Rāzī</a>
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<a href="/medicine-pormann" hreflang="und">127. Pormann on Medicine</a>
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<a href="/baghdad-school" hreflang="und">128. The Baghdad School</a>
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<a href="/al-farabi" hreflang="und">129. Al-Fārābī</a>
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<a href="/al-farabi-political" hreflang="und">130. Al-Fārābī Political</a>
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<a href="/al-farabi-black" hreflang="und">131. Black on al-Fārābī</a>
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<a href="/vision" hreflang="und">132. Vision</a>
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<a href="/music" hreflang="und">133. Music and Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/arabic-ethics" hreflang="und">134. Arabic Ethics</a>
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<a href="/buyids" hreflang="und">135. The Būyid Age</a>
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<a href="/ismailis-daftary" hreflang="und">136. Daftary on Ismā'īlism</a>
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<a href="/asharites" hreflang="und">137. Ash'arites</a>
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<a href="/avicenna-life-works" hreflang="und">138. Avicenna's Life</a>
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<a href="/avicenna-metaphysics" hreflang="und">139. Avicenna on Existence</a>
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<a href="/avicenna-god" hreflang="und">140. Avicenna on God</a>
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<a href="/avicenna-soul" hreflang="und">141. Avicenna on Soul</a>
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<a href="/avicenna-gutas" hreflang="und">142. Gutas on Avicenna</a>
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<a href="/al-ghazali" hreflang="und">143. Al-Ghazālī</a>
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<a href="/al-ghazali-incoherence" hreflang="und">144. Al-Ghazālī "Incoherence"</a>
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<a href="/al-ghazali-griffel" hreflang="und">145. Griffel on al-Ghazālī</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/islamic-world/andalusia">Andalusia</a></h2>
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<a href="/andalusia-introduction" hreflang="und">146. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/fiqh" hreflang="und">147. Islamic Law</a>
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<a href="/ibn-tufayl" hreflang="und">148. Ibn Ṭufayl</a>
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<a href="/averroes-reason-religion" hreflang="und">149. Averroes</a>
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<a href="/translations-burnett-hasse" hreflang="und">150. Arabic into Latin</a>
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<a href="/averroes-intellect" hreflang="und">151. Averroes on Intellect</a>
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<a href="/averroes-taylor" hreflang="und">152. Taylor on Averroes</a>
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<a href="/ibn-arabi-sufism" hreflang="und">153. Ibn 'Arabī's mysticism</a>
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<a href="/ibn-khaldun" hreflang="und">154. Ibn Khaldūn</a>
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<a href="/ibn-gabirol" hreflang="und">155. Ibn Gabirol</a>
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<a href="/jewish-neoplatonism-pessin" hreflang="und">156. Pessin Jewish Platonism</a>
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<a href="/judah-hallevi" hreflang="und">157. Judah Hallevi</a>
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<a href="/freedom-astrology-jewish" hreflang="und">158. Freedom and Astrology</a>
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<a href="/ethics-jewish" hreflang="und">159. Ethics and Judaism</a>
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<a href="/maimonides" hreflang="und">160. Maimonides</a>
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<a href="/maimonides-eternity" hreflang="und">161. Maimonides on eternity</a>
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<a href="/maimonides-stroumsa" hreflang="und">162. Stroumsa on Maimonides</a>
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<a href="/maimonides-controversy" hreflang="und">163. Maimonides Controversy</a>
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<a href="/gersonides" hreflang="und">164. Gersonides</a>
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<a href="/crescas" hreflang="und">165. Crescas</a>
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<a href="/gersonides-crescas-rudavsky" hreflang="und">166. Rudavsky Interview</a>
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<a href="/suffering-jewish" hreflang="und">167. Book of Job</a>
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<a href="/kabbalah" hreflang="und">168. Kabbalah</a>
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<a href="/albo-abravanel" hreflang="und">169. Albo and Abravanel</a>
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<a href="/jewish-philosophy-freudenthal" hreflang="und">170. Freudenthal Interview</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/islamic-world/eastern-traditions">Eastern Traditions</a></h2>
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<a href="/eastern-traditions-introduction" hreflang="und">171. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/baghdadi" hreflang="und">172. Al-Baghdādī</a>
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<a href="/fakhr-al-din-al-razi" hreflang="und">173. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī</a>
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<a href="/suhraward%C4%AB" hreflang="und">174. Suhrawardī</a>
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<a href="/illuminationism" hreflang="und">175. Illuminationism</a>
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<a href="/al-tusi" hreflang="und">176. Al-Ṭūsī</a>
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<a href="/later-metaphysics" hreflang="und">177. Existence Debate</a>
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<a href="/rumi-sufism" hreflang="und">178. Rūmī and Sufism</a>
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<a href="/sufism-rustom" hreflang="und">179. Rustom on Sufism</a>
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<a href="/later-logic" hreflang="und">180. Logical Tradition</a>
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<a href="/ibn-taymiyya" hreflang="und">181. Ibn Taymiyya</a>
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<a href="/mongols" hreflang="und">182. Mongol Era</a>
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<a href="/shiraz" hreflang="und">183. Shiraz</a>
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<a href="/commentary-wisnovsky" hreflang="und">184. Wisnovsky Commentaries</a>
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<a href="/safavid" hreflang="und">185. Safavids</a>
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<a href="/mulla-sadra-existence" hreflang="und">186. Mullā Ṣadrā on Existence</a>
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<a href="/mulla-sadra-motion" hreflang="und">187. Mullā Ṣadrā on Motion</a>
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<a href="/mulla-sadra-rizvi" hreflang="und">188. Rizvi on Mullā Ṣadrā</a>
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<a href="/mughal" hreflang="und">189. Islamic India</a>
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<a href="/ottoman" hreflang="und">190. Ottoman Empire</a>
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<a href="/european-encounters" hreflang="und">191. European Encounters</a>
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<a href="/women-islam" hreflang="und">192. Women and Islam</a>
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<a href="/iqbal-abduh" hreflang="und">193. 'Abduh and Iqbāl</a>
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<a href="/after-sadra" hreflang="und">194. After Ṣadrā</a>
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<a href="/contemporary-islam-von-kugelgen" hreflang="und">195. von Kügelgen Interview</a>
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</div> </li>
<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/series/medieval-philosophy" title="Medieval Philosophy" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/118">Medieval Philosophy</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/medieval/early-medieval-philosophy">Early Medieval</a></h2>
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<a href="/introduction-medieval" hreflang="und">196. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/alcuin-carolingian" hreflang="und">197. Carolingian Renaissance</a>
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<a href="/eriugena-predestination" hreflang="und">198. Eriugena on Freedom</a>
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<a href="/eriugena-periphyseon" hreflang="und">199. Eriugena's Periphyseon</a>
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<a href="/medieval-marenbon-kraye" hreflang="und">200. Kraye and Marenbon</a>
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<a href="/medieval-platonism-gersh" hreflang="und">201. Gersh on Platonism</a>
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<a href="/scholasticism" hreflang="und">202. Roots of Scholasticism</a>
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<a href="/peter-damian" hreflang="und">203. Can God Change the Past?</a>
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<a href="/anselm" hreflang="und">204. Anselm's Life and Works</a>
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<a href="/anselm-ontological-argument" hreflang="und">205. The Ontological Argument</a>
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<a href="/anselm-sweeney" hreflang="und">206. Sweeney on Anselm</a>
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<a href="/problem-universals" hreflang="und">207. Problem of Universals</a>
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<a href="/heloise-abelard" hreflang="und">208. Heloise and Abelard</a>
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<a href="/abelard-ethics" hreflang="und">209. Abelards Ethics</a>
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<a href="/abelard-marenbon" hreflang="und">210. Marenbon on Abelard</a>
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<a href="/victorines" hreflang="und">211. The Victorines</a>
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<a href="/debating-trinity" hreflang="und">212. Debating the Trinity</a>
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<a href="/chartres" hreflang="und">213. Philosophy at Chartres</a>
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<a href="/philosophy-nature" hreflang="und">214. Philosophy of Nature</a>
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<a href="/medieval-podcasters" hreflang="und">215. Medieval Podcasters</a>
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<a href="/gilbert-poitiers-individuation" hreflang="und">216. Individuation</a>
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<a href="/mereology-arlig" hreflang="und">217. Arlig on Mereology</a>
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<a href="/medieval-early-political" hreflang="und">218. Early Political</a>
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<a href="/lombard-gratian" hreflang="und">219. Gratian and Lombard</a>
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<a href="/humfress-law" hreflang="und">220. Humfress on Law</a>
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<a href="/hildegard-bingen" hreflang="und">221. Hildegard of Bingen</a>
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<a href="/latin-translations" hreflang="und">222. Translations into Latin</a>
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<a href="/medieval-universities" hreflang="und">223. Rise of the Universities</a>
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<a href="/emery-institutions" hreflang="und">224. Emery on Institutions</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/medieval/thirteenth-century-philosophy">Thirteenth Century</a></h2>
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<a href="/thirteenth-century-logic" hreflang="und">225. 13th Century Logic</a>
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<a href="/thirteenth-century-physics" hreflang="und">226. 13th Century Physics</a>
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<a href="/thirteenth-century-psychology" hreflang="und">227. 13th Century Psychology</a>
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<a href="/transcendentals" hreflang="und">228. The Transcendentals</a>
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<a href="/thirteenth-century-ethics" hreflang="und">229. 13th Century Ethics</a>
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<a href="/grosseteste" hreflang="und">230. Robert Grosseteste</a>
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<a href="/roger-bacon" hreflang="und">231. Roger Bacon</a>
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<a href="/magic-burnett" hreflang="und">232. Burnett on Magic</a>
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<a href="/bonaventure" hreflang="und">233. Bonaventure</a>
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<a href="/olivi" hreflang="und">234. Peter Olivi</a>
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<a href="/animals-toivanen" hreflang="und">235. Toivanen on Animals</a>
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<a href="/poverty" hreflang="und">236. Franciscan Poverty</a>
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<a href="/beguine-mystics" hreflang="und">237. Hadewijch and Mechthild</a>
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<a href="/kilwardby" hreflang="und">238. Robert Kilwardby</a>
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<a href="/logic-dutilh-novaes" hreflang="und">239. Dutilh Novaes on Logic</a>
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<a href="/albert-nature" hreflang="und">240. Albert on Nature</a>
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<a href="/albert-metaphysics" hreflang="und">241. Albert's Metaphysics</a>
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<a href="/self-awareness-cory" hreflang="und">242. Cory on Self-Awareness</a>
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<a href="/aquinas" hreflang="und">243. Thomas Aquinas</a>
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<a href="/aquinas-soul-knowledge" hreflang="und">244. Aquinas Soul Knowledge</a>
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<a href="/albert-aquinas-ethics" hreflang="und">245. Ethics in Albert, Aquinas</a>
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<a href="/natural-law" hreflang="und">246. The Rule of Law</a>
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<a href="/just-war" hreflang="und">247. Just War Theory</a>
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<a href="/aquinas-macdonald" hreflang="und">248. MacDonald on Aquinas</a>
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<a href="/condemnations" hreflang="und">249. The Condemnations</a>
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<a href="/q-and-a" hreflang="und">250. Q&amp;A</a>
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<a href="/latin-averroism" hreflang="und">251. "Latin Averroism"</a>
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<a href="/medieval-eternity" hreflang="und">252. Eternity of the World</a>
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<a href="/speculative-grammar" hreflang="und">253. Speculative Grammar</a>
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<a href="/romance-rose" hreflang="und">254. Romance of the Rose</a>
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<a href="/medieval-aesthetics-speer" hreflang="und">255. Speer Medieval Aesthetics</a>
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<a href="/henry-ghent" hreflang="und">256. Henry of Ghent</a>
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<a href="/henry-ghent-pickave" hreflang="und">257. Pickavé on Henry of Ghent</a>
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<a href="/trinity-eucharist" hreflang="und">258. Trinity Eucharist</a>
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<a href="/trinity-cross" hreflang="und">259. Cross on the Trinity</a>
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<a href="/scotus-being" hreflang="und">260. Scotus on Being</a>
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<a href="/scotus-freedom" hreflang="und">261. Scotus on Freedom</a>
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<a href="/scotus-ethics" hreflang="und">262. Scotus on Ethics</a>
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<a href="/scotus-universals" hreflang="und">263. Scotus on Universals</a>
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<a href="/scotus-pini" hreflang="und">264. Pini on Scotus</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/medieval/fourteenth-century-philosophy">Fourteenth Century</a></h2>
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<a href="/fourteenth-century-introduction" hreflang="und">265. Introduction to 14th c.</a>
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<a href="/will-pink" hreflang="und">266. Pink on the Will</a>
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<a href="/marguerite-porete" hreflang="und">267. Marguerite Porete</a>
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<a href="/dante" hreflang="und">268. Dante Alighieri</a>
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<a href="/church-state" hreflang="und">269. Church and State</a>
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<a href="/marsilius-padua" hreflang="und">270. Marsilius of Padua</a>
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<a href="/ockham-ethics-politics" hreflang="und">271. Ockham Ethics Politics</a>
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<a href="/ockham-nominalism" hreflang="und">272. Ockhams Nominalism</a>
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<a href="/ockham-mental-language" hreflang="und">273. Ockham on Mental Language</a>
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<a href="/ockham-brower-toland" hreflang="und">274. Brower-Toland on Ockham</a>
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<a href="/realism" hreflang="und">275. Responses to Ockham</a>
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<a href="/foreknowledge-predestination" hreflang="und">276. Foreknowledge</a>
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<a href="/fourteenth-century-logic" hreflang="und">277. 14th Century Logic</a>
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<a href="/obligations-uckelman" hreflang="und">278. Uckelman on Obligations</a>
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<a href="/oxford-calculators" hreflang="und">279. Oxford Calculators</a>
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<a href="/fourteenth-century-physics" hreflang="und">280. 14th Century Physics</a>
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<a href="/medieval-medicine-green" hreflang="und">281. Green on Medicine</a>
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<a href="/buridan" hreflang="und">282. John Buridan</a>
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<a href="/buridan-zupko" hreflang="und">283. Zupko on Buridan</a>
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<a href="/autrecourt-skepticism" hreflang="und">284. Autrecourt's Skepticism</a>
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<a href="/skepticism-perler" hreflang="und">285. Perler on Skepticism</a>
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<a href="/medieval-economics" hreflang="und">286. Medieval Economic Theory</a>
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<a href="/meister-eckhart" hreflang="und">287. Meister Eckhart</a>
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<a href="/german-dominicans" hreflang="und">288. German Dominicans</a>
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<a href="/angels" hreflang="und">289. Angels</a>
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<a href="/emotions-pickave" hreflang="und">290. Pickavé on Emotions</a>
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<a href="/english-mysticism" hreflang="und">291. English Mysticism</a>
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<a href="/chaucer-langland" hreflang="und">292. Chaucer and Langland</a>
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<a href="/medieval-gender-sexuality" hreflang="und">293. Gender and Sexuality</a>
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<a href="/chaucer-davis" hreflang="und">294. Davis on Chaucer</a>
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<a href="/jean-gerson" hreflang="und">295. Jean Gerson</a>
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<a href="/wyclif" hreflang="und">296. John Wyclif</a>
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<a href="/scholasticism-across-europe" hreflang="und">297. Scholasticism in Europe</a>
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<a href="/llull-petrarch" hreflang="und">298. Ramon Llull and Petrarch</a>
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<a href="/substance-pasnau" hreflang="und">299. Pasnau on Substance</a>
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<a href="/relevance-ancient" hreflang="und">300a. Ancient Philosophy Today</a>
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<a href="/relevance-medieval" hreflang="und">300b Medieval Philosophy Today</a>
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</div> </li>
<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/series/byzantine-philosophy" title="Byzantine Philosophy" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/108">Byzantine</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/series/byzantine-philosophy">Byzantine</a></h2>
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<a href="/byzantium-introduction" hreflang="und">301. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/syriac-armenian" hreflang="und">302. Syriac and Armenian</a>
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<a href="/iconoclasm" hreflang="und">303. Iconoclasm</a>
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<a href="/john-damascus" hreflang="und">304. John of Damascus</a>
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<a href="/john-damascus-louth" hreflang="und">305. Louth on John of Damascus</a>
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<a href="/photius-compilations" hreflang="und">306. Photius</a>
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<a href="/psellos" hreflang="und">307. Michael Psellos</a>
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<a href="/psellos-omeara" hreflang="und">308. O'Meara on Psellos</a>
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<a href="/italos" hreflang="und">309. John Italos</a>
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<a href="/byzantine-political" hreflang="und">310. Political Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/byzantine-rhetoric" hreflang="und">311. Rhetoric in Byzantium</a>
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<a href="/byzantine-historiography" hreflang="und">312. Byzantine Historiography</a>
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<a href="/anna-komnene" hreflang="und">313. Anna Komnene</a>
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<a href="/byzantine-commentaries-ierodiakonou" hreflang="und">314. Ierodiakonou Commentaries</a>
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<a href="/gender-byzantium" hreflang="und">315. Gender in Byzantium</a>
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<a href="/law-money-war-byzantium" hreflang="und">316. Law, Money, and War</a>
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<a href="/byzantine-manuscripts" hreflang="und">317. Manuscripts</a>
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<a href="/manuscripts-primavesi" hreflang="und">318. Primavesi on Manuscripts</a>
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<a href="/petritsi-proclus-revival" hreflang="und">319. The Proclus Revival</a>
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<a href="/byzantium-islam" hreflang="und">320. Byzantium and Islam</a>
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<a href="/byzantium-islam-herrin" hreflang="und">321. Herrin Byzantium &amp; Islam</a>
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<a href="/science-palaiologan-renaissance" hreflang="und">322. Palaiologan Science</a>
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<a href="/palamas-hesychasm" hreflang="und">323. Palamas and Hesychasm</a>
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<a href="/latin-byzantium" hreflang="und">324. Latin in Byzantium</a>
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<a href="/gemistos-plethon" hreflang="und">325. Gemistos Plethon</a>
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<a href="/later-orthodox" hreflang="und">326. Later Orthodox</a>
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<a href="/trizio-byzantine-latin-medieval" hreflang="und">327. Trizio on East and West</a>
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<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/renaissance/italian-renaissance-philosophy" title="Renaissance" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/113">Renaissance</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/renaissance/italian-renaissance-philosophy">Italian Renaissance</a></h2>
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<a href="/renaissance-introduction" hreflang="und">328. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/bessarion-trebizond" hreflang="und">329. Greek Scholars in Italy</a>
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<a href="/italian-humanism" hreflang="und">330. Italian Humanism</a>
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<a href="/valla" hreflang="und">331. Lorenzo Valla</a>
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<a href="/humanism-kraye" hreflang="und">332. Kraye on Humanism</a>
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<a href="/humanist-ethics" hreflang="und">333. Humanist Ethics</a>
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<a href="/reviving-hellenistic" hreflang="und">334. Reviving Hellenistic</a>
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<a href="/emotions-ebbersmeyer" hreflang="und">335. Ebbersmeyer on Emotions</a>
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<a href="/christine-de-pizan" hreflang="und">336. Christine de Pizan</a>
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<a href="/italian-women-humanists" hreflang="und">337. Italian Women Humanists</a>
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<a href="/fonte-marinella" hreflang="und">338. Defense of Women</a>
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<a href="/florentine-platonism" hreflang="und">339. Florentine Platonism</a>
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<a href="/ficino" hreflang="und">340. Marsilio Ficino</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-love" hreflang="und">341. Theories of Love</a>
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<a href="/plato-renaissance-robichaud" hreflang="und">342. Robichaud on Plato </a>
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<a href="/jewish-philosophy-renaissance" hreflang="und">343. Jewish Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/pico-della-mirandola" hreflang="und">344. Pico della Mirandola</a>
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<a href="/manetti-pico-dignity" hreflang="und">345. Human Nature</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-animals-muratori" hreflang="und">346. Muratori on Animals</a>
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<a href="/savonarola" hreflang="und">347. Savonarola</a>
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<a href="/republicanism-civic-humanism" hreflang="und">348. Civic Humanism</a>
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<a href="/machiavelli" hreflang="und">349. Machiavelli</a>
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<a href="/machiavelli-republicanism" hreflang="und">350. Machiavelli Republicanism</a>
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<a href="/machiavelli-skinner" hreflang="und">351. Skinner on Machiavelli</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-history" hreflang="und">352. Renaissance Histories</a>
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<a href="/italian-utopias" hreflang="und">353. Italian Utopias</a>
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<a href="/economics-italian-renaissance" hreflang="und">354. Renaissance Economics</a>
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<a href="/italian-universities" hreflang="und">355. Italian Universities </a>
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<a href="/reception-aristotle-renaissance" hreflang="und">356. Aristotle Reception</a>
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<a href="/ethics-lines" hreflang="und">357. Lines on Aristotle</a>
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<a href="/pomponazzi-nifo" hreflang="und">358. Pomponazzi and Nifo</a>
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<a href="/zabarella-scientific-method" hreflang="und">359. Zabarella</a>
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<a href="/arabic-learning-hasse" hreflang="en">360. Hasse on Arabic Learning </a>
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<a href="/renaissance-mathematics-art" hreflang="und">361. Mathematics and Art</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-medicine" hreflang="en">362. Renaissance Medicine</a>
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<a href="/cardano" hreflang="en">363. Cardano</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-medicine-giglioni" hreflang="en">364. Giglioni on Medicine</a>
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<a href="/telesio-campanella" hreflang="en">365. Telesio and Campanella</a>
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<a href="/renaissance-magic-astrology" hreflang="en">366. Magic and Astrology</a>
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<a href="/magic-copenhaver" hreflang="en">367. Copenhaver on Magic</a>
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<a href="/giordano-bruno" hreflang="en">368. Giordano Bruno</a>
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<a href="/galileo-renaissance" hreflang="en">369. Galileo and Renaissance</a>
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<a href="/rome/renaissance/rowland" hreflang="en">370. Rowland on Rome</a>
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</div>
</div> </li>
<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/series/classical-indian-philosophy" title="India" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/68">India</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/india/origins">Origins</a></h2>
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<a href="/introduction-indian-philosophy" hreflang="und">1. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/india-overview" hreflang="und">2. Historical Overview</a>
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<a href="/vedic" hreflang="und">3. The Vedic Period</a>
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<a href="/upanisads" hreflang="und">4. The Upanisads</a>
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<a href="/upanisads-self" hreflang="und">5. The Self in the Upanisads</a>
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<a href="/karma" hreflang="und">6. Karma</a>
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<a href="/upanisads-black" hreflang="und">7. Black on the Upanisads</a>
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<a href="/panini-grammar" hreflang="und">8. Panini's Grammar</a>
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<a href="/buddha" hreflang="und">9. The Buddha</a>
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<a href="/buddha-teaching" hreflang="und">10. The Buddhas Teaching</a>
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<a href="/kautilya-asoka" hreflang="und">11. Kautilya and Ashoka</a>
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<a href="/buddhism-gethin" hreflang="und">12. Gethin on Buddhism</a>
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<a href="/mahabharata" hreflang="und">13. The Mahabharata</a>
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<a href="/bhagavad-gita" hreflang="und">14. The Bhagavad-Gita</a>
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<a href="/non-violence" hreflang="und">15. Non-Violence</a>
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<a href="/women-india" hreflang="und">16. Women in Ancient India</a>
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<a href="/hinduism-frazier" hreflang="und">17. Frazier on Hinduism</a>
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</div>
<div class="block">
<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/india/age-sutra">Age of the Sutra</a></h2>
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<a href="/introduction-age-sutra" hreflang="und">18. Age of the Sutra</a>
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<a href="/rise-skepticism" hreflang="und">19. Rise of Skepticism</a>
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<a href="/jaimini-mimamsa" hreflang="und">20. Mimamsa-Sutra</a>
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<a href="/mimamsa-knowledge-language" hreflang="und">21. Mimamsa on Knowledge</a>
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<a href="/mimamsa-freschi" hreflang="und">22. Freschi on Mimamsa</a>
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<a href="/vedanta-sutra" hreflang="und">23. Vedanta-Sutra</a>
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<a href="/advaita-vedanta" hreflang="und">24. Advaita Vedanta</a>
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<a href="/bhartrihari" hreflang="und">25. Bhartrihari on Language</a>
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<a href="/vedanta-clooney" hreflang="und">26. Clooney on Vedanta</a>
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<a href="/samkhya" hreflang="und">27. Samkhya</a>
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<a href="/ayurveda-medicine" hreflang="und">28. Ayurvedic Medicine</a>
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<a href="/yoga" hreflang="und">29. Yoga-Sutra</a>
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<a href="/yoga-maas" hreflang="und">30. Maas on Yoga</a>
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<a href="/nyaya-sutra" hreflang="und">31. Nyaya-Sutra</a>
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<a href="/nyaya-perception" hreflang="und">32. Nyaya on Perception</a>
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<a href="/nyaya-reasoning" hreflang="und">33. Nyaya on Reasoning</a>
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<a href="/nyaya-mind" hreflang="und">34. Nyaya on the Mind</a>
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<a href="/nyaya-jah" hreflang="und">35. Jha and Jha on Nyaya</a>
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<a href="/vaisesika-sutra" hreflang="und">36. Vaisesika-Sutra</a>
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<a href="/vaisesika-complexity-causation" hreflang="und">37. Vaisesika on Complexity</a>
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<a href="/india-time" hreflang="und">38. Theories of Time</a>
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<a href="/carvaka-naturalism" hreflang="und">39. Naturalism</a>
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<a href="/indian-materialism" hreflang="und">40. Materialism</a>
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<a href="/mind-chadha" hreflang="und">41. Chadha on Mind</a>
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<a href="/aesthetics-rasa" hreflang="und">42. Aesthetics of Rasa</a>
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<div class="block">
<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/india/buddhists-jains">Buddhists and Jains</a></h2>
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<a href="/buddhism-jainism-introduction" hreflang="und">43. Buddhists and Jains</a>
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<a href="/nagarjuna-emptiness" hreflang="und">44. Nagarjuna on Emptiness</a>
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<a href="/nagarjuna-change" hreflang="und">45. Nagarjuna on Change</a>
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<a href="/nagarjuna-tetralemma" hreflang="und">46. Nagarjunas Tetralemma</a>
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<a href="/nagarjuna-westerhoff" hreflang="und">47. Westerhoff on Nagarjuna</a>
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<a href="/jain-standpoints" hreflang="und">48. Jain Theory of Standpoints</a>
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<a href="/jains-truth" hreflang="und">49. Jains on Truth</a>
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<a href="/jains-gorisse" hreflang="und">50. Gorisse Jain Epistemology</a>
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<a href="/vasubandhu-yogacara" hreflang="und">51. Vasubandhu and Yogacara</a>
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<a href="/dignaga-perception-language" hreflang="und">52. Dignaga on Perception</a>
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<a href="/dignaga-logic" hreflang="und">53. Dignaga's Logic</a>
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<a href="/logic-buddhism-priest" hreflang="und">54. Graham Priest on Buddhism</a>
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<a href="/dignaga-consciousness" hreflang="und">55. Dignaga on Consciousness</a>
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<a href="/buddhaghosa" hreflang="und">56. Buddhaghosa</a>
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<a href="/tantra" hreflang="und">57. Tantra</a>
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<a href="/animals-carpenter" hreflang="und">58. Carpenter on Animals</a>
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<a href="/india-greece" hreflang="und">59. Indian Influence on Greece</a>
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<a href="/india-islam-europe" hreflang="und">60. Influence on Islam, Europe</a>
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<a href="/after-dignaga" hreflang="und">61. Later Indian Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/india-history-patrick" hreflang="und">62. Kit Patrick</a>
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</div> </li>
<li class="menu-item"> <a href="/series/africana-philosophy" title="Africana Philosophy" data-drupal-link-system-path="taxonomy/term/106">Africana</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/africana/precolonial-african-philosophy">Precolonial</a></h2>
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<a href="/africana-introduction" hreflang="und">1. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/prehistoric-africa" hreflang="und">2. Prehistoric Africa</a>
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<a href="/babylonia" hreflang="und">3. Ancient Mesopotamia</a>
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<a href="/egypt" hreflang="und">4. Ancient Egypt</a>
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<a href="/egypt-instruction" hreflang="und">5. Egyptian Instructions</a>
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<a href="/egyptian-narratives-dialogues" hreflang="und">6. Egyptian Narratives</a>
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<a href="/egypt-parkinson" hreflang="und">7. Parkinson on Egypt</a>
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<a href="/early-ethiopia" hreflang="und">8. Early Ethiopian Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/zera-yacob" hreflang="und">9. Zera Yacob</a>
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<a href="/walda-heywat" hreflang="und">10. Walda Heywat</a>
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<a href="/ethiopia-kiros" hreflang="und">11. Kiros on Ethiopia</a>
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<a href="/subsaharan-islam" hreflang="und">12. Subsaharan Islam</a>
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<a href="/sokoto-caliphate" hreflang="und">13. Sokoto Caliphate</a>
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<a href="/diagne-islam-africa" hreflang="und">14. Diagne on Islam in Africa</a>
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<a href="/oral-philosophy-africa" hreflang="und">15. Oral Philosophy in Africa</a>
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<a href="/oral-traditions-imbo" hreflang="und">16. Imbo on Okot p'Bitek</a>
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<a href="/african-time" hreflang="und">17. Philosophy of Time</a>
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<a href="/african-god" hreflang="und">18. God in African Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/african-person" hreflang="und">19. Philosophy of the Person</a>
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<a href="/communalism" hreflang="und">20. Communalism</a>
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<a href="/africa-divination-witchcraft" hreflang="und">21. Divination and Witchcraft</a>
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<a href="/gender-african-tradition" hreflang="und">22. Gender in Africa</a>
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<a href="/gender-nzegwu" hreflang="und">23. Nzegwu on Gender</a>
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<a href="/professional-school" hreflang="und">24. Professional School</a>
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<a href="/sage-philosophy" hreflang="und">25. Sage Philosophy</a>
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<a href="/anthropology-philosophy-kresse" hreflang="und">26. Kresse on Anthropology</a>
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<a href="/continuing-relevance-precolonial" hreflang="und">27. Beyond the Reaction</a>
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<a href="/jeffers-precolonial" hreflang="und">28. Jeffers African Philosophy</a>
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<h2 class="block-title"><a href="/africana/slavery-diasporic-african-philosophy">Slavery / Diaspora</a></h2>
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<a href="/slavery-diaspora" hreflang="und">29. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/anton-wilhelm-amo" hreflang="und">30. Anton Wilhelm Amo</a>
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<a href="/amo-smith" hreflang="und">31. Smith on Amo</a>
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<a href="/early-africana-english" hreflang="und">32. Early Writing in English</a>
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<a href="/phillis-wheatley" hreflang="und">33. Phillis Wheatley</a>
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<a href="/lemuel-haynes" hreflang="und">34. Lemuel Haynes</a>
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<a href="/sancho-banneker" hreflang="und">35. Sancho and Banneker</a>
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<a href="/cugoano-equiano" hreflang="und">36. Cugoano and Equiano</a>
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<a href="/haitian-revolution" hreflang="und">37. Haitian Revolution</a>
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<a href="/baron-de-vastey" hreflang="und">38. Baron de Vastey</a>
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<a href="/haiti-garraway" hreflang="und">39. Garraway on Haiti</a>
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<a href="/early-black-institutions" hreflang="und">40. Early Black Institutions</a>
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<a href="/colonization-controversy" hreflang="und">41. Colonization Controversy</a>
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<a href="/african-identity-sidbury" hreflang="und">42. Sidbury African Identity</a>
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<a href="/walker-appeal" hreflang="und">43. David Walker</a>
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<a href="/maria-stewart" hreflang="und">44. Maria W. Stewart</a>
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<a href="/hosea-easton" hreflang="und">45. Hosea Easton</a>
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<a href="/politics-rogers" hreflang="und">46. Rogers Political Thought</a>
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<a href="/douglass-life" hreflang="und">47. Frederick Douglass</a>
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<a href="/douglass-speeches" hreflang="und">48. Douglass Speeches</a>
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<a href="/henry-highland-garnet" hreflang="und">49. Henry Highland Garnet</a>
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<a href="/martin-delany" hreflang="und">50. Martin Delany</a>
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<a href="/truth-harper" hreflang="und">51. Truth and Harper</a>
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<a href="/shadd-ward" hreflang="und">52. Emigration to Canada</a>
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<a href="/alexander-crummell" hreflang="und">53. Alexander Crummell</a>
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<a href="/black-nationalism-moses" hreflang="und">54. Moses on Nationalism</a>
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<a href="/africanus-horton" hreflang="und">55. Africanus Horton</a>
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<a href="/blyden" hreflang="und">56. Edward Blyden</a>
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<a href="/fortune" hreflang="und">57. T. Thomas Fortune</a>
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<a href="/firmin" hreflang="und">58. Anténor Firmin</a>
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<a href="/thomas-durham" hreflang="und">59. Thomas and Durham</a>
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<a href="/abolitionism-brazil" hreflang="und">60. Abolitionism in Brazil</a>
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<a href="/anna-julia-cooper" hreflang="en">61. Anna Julia Cooper</a>
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<a href="/ida-wells" hreflang="en">62. Ida B. Wells</a>
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<a href="/black-women-activists-cooper" hreflang="en">63. Cooper on Women Activists</a>
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<a href="/henry-mcneal-turner" hreflang="en">64. Henry McNeal Turner</a>
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<a href="/booker-t-washington" hreflang="en">65. Booker T. Washington</a>
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<a href="/introducing-du-bois" hreflang="en">66. Introducing Du Bois</a>
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<a href="/jeffers-diaspora-philosophy" hreflang="en">67. Jeffers on Part Two</a>
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<a href="/introduction-20th-century" hreflang="en">68. Introduction</a>
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<a href="/west-african-intellectuals" hreflang="en">71. West African Intellectuals</a>
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<a href="/african-american-socialism" hreflang="en">72. African American Socialism</a>
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<a href="/africana-marxism-wills" hreflang="en">73. Wills on Marxism</a>
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<h1 class="page-header"><span>81 - Jan Opsomer on Middle Platonism</span> </h1>
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Posted on <span>20 May 2012</span>
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<p><span style="color:rgb(32, 37, 40)">Jan Opsomer helps Peter to understand principles, Plato interpretation, and Plutarch in a wide-ranging discussion of Middle Platonism.</span></p>
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Further Reading
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<p>• J. Opsomer, <em>In Search of the Truth: Academic Tendencies in Middle Platonism</em> (Brussels: 1998).</p>
<p>• J. Opsomer, "Proclus vs Plotinus on Matter (<em>De mal. subs.</em> 30-7)," <em>Phronesis</em> 46 (2001), 154-88.</p>
<p>• J. Opsomer, "Plutarch's Platonism Revisited," in M. Bonazzi and V. Celluprica, <em>L'eredità platonica</em> (Naples: 2005).</p>
<p>• J. Opsomer, "Demiurges in Early Imperial Platonism," in R. Hirsch-Luipold (ed.), <em>Gott und die Götter bei Plutarch </em><br> (Berlin: 2005).</p>
<p>• J. Opsomer and M. Bonazzi (eds), <em>The origins of the Platonic system</em> (Louvain: 2009).</p>
<p>• J. Opsomer, "Plutarch on the division of the soul," in R. Barney et al (eds)<em>, Plato and the Divided Self</em> (Cambridge: 2012).</p>
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<p> <span class="comment-author"><span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Ryan W</span></span> <span class="comment-date">17 July 2019</span> </p>
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<h3><a href="/comment/9901#comment-9901" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="und">Continuity and the Sophist</a></h3>
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<p>It strikes me that there might be more continuity between the Platonic dialogues and the Middle Platonists on the monad and dyad than it might originally appear. This struck me because of the centrality of the forms of sameness and difference in The Sophist. It seems to me that there's a close relation (maybe even identity) between Plato's sameness and difference, and the Middle Platonists' monad and dyad. Multiplicity inevitably accompanies difference (as soon as you have a difference, you have two things, ie. a dyad), whereas oneness inevitably accompanies sameness (If "two" things are exactly the same in every respect, "they" are actually one thing). The indefinite potential series of the dyad, on which the monad intervenes to generate the specific numbers, could also be expressed as the indefinite range of possible difference, on which identity intervenes.</p>
<p>Of course, this is all speculative, but given what we know of Plato's interest in mathematics, it wouldn't surprise me if something like this was a genuine "unwritten doctrine" which really did go back to Plato himself.</p>
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<p> <span class="comment-author"><span lang="" about="/users/peter-adamson" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Peter Adamson</span></span> <span class="comment-date">17 July 2019</span> </p>
<p class="visually-hidden">In reply to <a href="/comment/9901#comment-9901" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="und">Continuity and the Sophist</a> by <span lang="" typeof="schema:Person" property="schema:name" datatype="">Ryan W</span></p>
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<h3><a href="/comment/9904#comment-9904" class="permalink" rel="bookmark" hreflang="und">Middle Platonic roots</a></h3>
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<p>Yes, that is a good suggestion and of course scholars have thought quite a bit about potential Platonic inspiration for the Middle Platonic, Neopythagorean theories. Apart from the Sophist we could think of the mathematical cosmology of the Timaeus (which also thematizes Sameness and Difference), the Philebus (limit and unlimited), Parmenides, etc. Plus there is the information about Plato's mathematical theories in Aristotle, especially the Metaphysics, and other information on unwritten doctrines which has caused no small amount of discussion. Anyway that's all just to agree with you, however I think we have to assume that any relation between, say, 1st c BC and 1-2nd c AD century Middle Platonists and Plato himself must have been rather indirect and heavily mediated, plus rather eclectic, pulling in other ideas from Pythagoreanism and the like.</p>
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